The Cultural Evolution of Humans (With its Stages)

Culture is a collective term for the traits acquired by humans, living in a society, in order to adapt to a particular environment.

These traits include knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, religion and any other capability acquired as a member of the society.

Culture is a unique feature of human evolutionary process and humans have modified their biological evolution using culture as a tool. Because of this unique feature, the human evolution has been more rapid than that of other species.

Thus, the biological and cultural evolutions have progressed simultaneously, complementing each other in the process. Culture is believed to have evolved mainly through the second half of Pliocene and the first three-quarters of the Pleistocene period.

Evolution of culture made possible the following developments:

1. Dispersal of human beings across the earth’s surface.

2. Adaptation to nearly all of biotic and physical situations by humans.

3. Growth in number to reach a population of 5 million around 10,000 years ago.

Stages of Cultural Evolution:

Based on technology of stone tools, the various stages in cultural evolution of humans are referred to as old stone age, the middle stone age and the new stone age. The main features of these stages are discussed below.

Palaeolithic Age:

The Palaeolithic Age dates back to a period two million years ago. During this age, successive glaciations alternated with milder climatic conditions. Plants, animals and humans tried to adapt to these climatic extremes and those, which could not, became extinct. Speech was evolved and mastered by humans along with tools and fire, thus completing ‘the tripod of culture’.

Speech made communication and exchange of information, ideas and experiences possible. Humans could now innovate and reorganise. Humans started making tools using Stone, bones and wood, and adopted hunting and gathering as the main economic activities. The earliest criteria for occupation of an area were access to source of water, least effort and continuous food supply and security.

A revolutionary development, during this period, was the discovery and control of fire which made possible movement to higher latitudes, keeping the animals away, storage of animal flesh, security from predators and from fellow beings, and the origin of a religious cult which centred around fire. The progress on the cultural front was slow during the early Pleistocene, while there were rapid advances from a period one million years ago onwards. Another feature which evolved during this age was gender-based division of labour and sharing of food.

Thus, during the Palaeolithic age, humans evolved from an unspecialised food gatherer (Homo habilis) to a specialised hunter-gatherer (advanced species of Homo sapiens).

Mesolithic Age:

The Mesolithic Age lasted from 11,000 to 9,000 years ago. This age is characterised by the end of the last of the major deglaciations and replenishment of water bodies by aquatic life. This age also marked the beginning of Holocene period or “the stage of incipient food production.” Humans had become a specialised food gatherers by now. They also adopted the techniques for preservation and storage of food surpluses, thus reducing the ‘starvation periods’. Tools became more refined and specialised.

Neolithic Age:

The Neolithic Age period is characterised by grinding and polishing of stone, beginning of agriculture, a settled lifestyle, pottery, domestication of animals and a more purposeful and intensive manipulation of biotic environment. Three main sites of early agriculture are the Middle-East, Meso and Andean America, and South-East Asia.

There was greater regional spread of tool types and advancements were made in food preservation and storage. The animals for food were hunted outside, but were brought to the camp site and consumed there. From various sites, remains of wheat, barley, peas, lentil, and skeletal remains of cattle and pigs have been found.

Beginnings of Civilisation:

The early civilisations appeared in the uplands which had adequate amounts of rainfall to support agriculture for the local inhabitants. Gradually, with increase in population, the communities moved to the lowlands, where the river valleys offered natural sites for settlement, agriculture and domestication of animals.

The early river valley civilisations came up around the rivers Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus, etc. The agricultural advances were represented by development of water management techniques like canals, bunds, ditches, etc. Pottery and weaving had already developed.

Around 3500 B.C., metallurgy came into existence with the use of copper, silver, gold and, later, bronze and iron. Around 3000 B.C., the use of wheel for vehicles and sail for ships made easier the transportation of greater loads. During the second millennium, domestication of horse started in grasslands of the central Asian steppes.

In the meantime, agricultural surpluses gave rise to urban centres. Further intellectual progress was reflected in writing, mathematics, astronomy and development of calendar. The economic, scientific and technological advancement led to further social, political and intellectual progress.

It was around 1500 B.C. that iron began to be used. This was a landmark as it increased agricultural productivity and made possible the clearing of forests for purposes of settlement and agriculture. Also, more effective weapons could be made which made warfare an important element of political life during this period.

The modern technological revolution began with the Industrial Revolution during the last two centuries and a new way of life arose out of it. The Industrial Revolution increased productivity, transformed patterns of organisation, sparked new theories of economic management and stimulated political thought regarding distribution of wealth. Communication transportation and sources of energy in manifold forms gave people a freedom they had never imagined possible.

The most significant advances in recent decades have been in the field of transport and communication and include railways, air transport, ocean transport, telephone, radio, television, computers, satellite communication, internet, fax etc. Apart from this, advancements in tapping of various sources of energy, non-renewable and renewable, have been tremendous.

Cultures vary in how they utilise technological advances. Japan has developed a dense railway web and its road traffic is also increasing rapidly. Countries, where economic development began to accelerate only in the latter half of the twentieth century, may never acquire a completely developed railway system. More probably, roads comple­mented by air routes will serve most of their needs.

Similarly, agriculture has been completely transformed by scientific and technological advancements which include the bio-technological revolution involving advanced knowledge of genetics, improved high-yielding and disease- resistant varieties of seeds, crop rotation methods, increased use of chemical fertilisers, extensive mechanised operations and scientific forestry.

But regional disparities in development exist. As a result, primitive techniques and cultures co­exist with modern and complex ones. With increased communication compared to the ancient times, these differences are being obliterated fast.